“Obasan” by Joy Kogawa Essay

The issue of racial conflict has caused great controversy for many centuries. Conflict which is incited by racism is often thought to be the worst of all conflicts because it is unfounded and based on utterly false beliefs. In society today, there are many racist people who put down and almost ostracize the people of another community. In Joy Kogawa’s novel, Obasan, the issue of racism is discussed through the various letters kept by Obasan which in turn provides a first-hand look at was done to Naomi’s family. In Obasan, there are many instances where the Joy Kogawa uses images of animals, such as insects, kittens and especially chickens to support a general theme of dehumanization. Also these animals always seem to correspond to human beings, whether they are generalized groups or individual characters. In other words, it is very apparent to see the foreshadowing of the story and also the close connection between the animals in the story and the human condition of the story, through the use of these vivid images of the animals. At the very beginning of the novel, when Obasan and Naomi are  rummaging through the attic and getting reminded about all of the memories, they come across a family of spiders. These spiders are described as being â€Å"round black blots, large as a cat’s eye† (24) and in a sense, disgusting enough to send shivers down any persons’ spine. This description of the black and creepy spiders is a foreshadowing of all of the memories that Obasan and Naomi have, as the memories and the plot itself is quite dark and horrific. There are many â€Å"large and black† memories that Naomi has such as the death of her mother and the incident in Old Man Gower’s bathroom. However, it is possible to assume that the blackest memories are the ones that deal with the racism towards the Japanese community. For example, it seems that everyone who has ever had an effect on Naomi, good or bad, has deserted her with time. Also, on the way to school, Naomi and Stephen are taunted and teased by the other school kids. Most importantly, the very way that the Canadian Government mistreated the Japanese community, sending them to concentration camps, putting them on trains and forcing them to live in tiny huts, is a cruel memory. This memory a will probably stay with Naomi for the rest of her life much like the ancient spiders in the attic. The part of the novel with the kitten trapped underneath the outhouse in another, quite disgusting look at the issue of racism. The thing that is so shocking about this part is that the white-haired girl blames Naomi for something that Naomi obviously did not do, throwing a kitten down in the outhouse. What is even more shocking is that the girl, the owner of the kitten does not go down and get her kitten, but instead leaves the kitten there to eventually die. The girl can represent the white Canadian and the kitten can be seen as a Japanese Canadian living in that society. The kitten is stuck in the outhouse, which can represent Canada. While it is down there, â€Å"no one is nearby†¦no one comes to help† (172) even though the cat makes â€Å"a faint steady mewing† (172). Since there is no one around the kitten will eventually be forgotten about. In other words, the Canadian government tries to get rid of the Japanese community by sending them to concentration camps where, despite all of the arguments and letters sent by Aunt Emily to be heard (the mewing), the Japanese community will probably be forgotten about as there is no one around. Another example of this animal imagery is when Naomi is standing alone in the backyard next to the cage of the white hen, she places one by one little yellow chicks in the cage with the hen. Suddenly and â€Å"without warning, the hen jabs down on the [chicks]† (62) consistently. Through the use of this animal imagery, the issue of racism is clearly apparent. For example, the hen can be seen as the white people living in â€Å"the cage† or Canada. Slowly, the Japanese people, in this case the yellow chicks, immigrate into the cage. Without doing anything wrong or anything that would anger the hen, or white people, the hen comes down and starts pecking at the chicks. In this part, it is possible to assume that the sole reason that the hen comes down on the chicks is that the yellow chicks have appearances different than the white hen. Also, there is a great deal of foreshadowing in this little part of the novel as the Canadian people will soon start ostracising the Japanese Canadian community with no warning at all. Not only will they ostracise the community, the Canadians, although they do not kill the Japanese like the hen did to the chicks, but the racism is so strong that they will send the Japanese on concentration camps away from all urban areas and even treat  them like animals forcing them into little tool shed houses covered with cow manure for a roof. Another example of the chicken imagery is in the school yard where a bunch of Japanese schoolboys are killing a white chicken. This imagery of the chicken suffering is one of the better examples of racism in the novel. This killing of the chicken can symbolise the anger that the Japanese community have against the white Canadians after the way that they have been treated. This hatred and anger is in fact so strong that it is not good enough to just kill the chicken, but they â€Å"got to make it suffer† (169). This is kind of ironic as well, because the chicken can be seen as the Japanese community and the schoolboys can be seen as the white Canadians. The Canadians in the novel continuously make the Japanese people â€Å"suffer† instead of killing them instantly as killing them or deporting them would affect the Canadian image. It is for this reason that the Canadians decide to torment the Japanese and try to cover everything up. In conclusion, Obasan, by Joy Kogawa deals with the issue of racism in a very efficient way by using unique images of animals to not only represent human beings in society, but also to help support the theme of this dehumanization. Racism in society is extremely awful as it is based on utterly false beliefs. In the novel, for example, all Japanese were considered to be evil people even though the Japanese living in Canada did hardly anything to the Canadians. Individuals of a certain community are being ostracized by other people for being of a certain race. Obasan, teaches us that we should not consider a certain community to be evil, but embrace the differences in society. In other words, Hitler was a fanatical German, however not all Germans are fanatical.

Human Resource Management in the Public Office Essay

Is money the most important incentive tool in the public sector? Is performance-based pay an effective way to motivate employees to be more productive? Discuss the positive and negative benefits associated with broadbanded pay systems. The public sector mainly deals with the economic and administrative delivery of goods and services from the government to the nation’s people. Such a role requires true commitment to service and to the objective of improving the general welfare of individuals. Moreover, public servants uphold such commitments with a unique set of priorities that are not centered on material and financial gains but rather on what their capabilities and achievements could contribute to others’ betterment. This ideal may just as easily set public servants apart from members of the labor force that render their services for profit. This in consideration, financial rewards may not be the top priority of public servants but it is definitely an effective incentive tool across sectors from private to public. A way of granting incentive to employees is thru performance-based pay. This compensation scheme entails salary increases and rewarding of bonuses to employees that were able to achieve or surpass the goals related to their scope of work. Under such a scheme, employees become more motivated to produce high quality service with the end goal of producing evidently positive results. At the same time, since such a scheme requires that the salary increase be justified by the exemplary performance of the employee, there would be less incidences of increases and promotions made on the mere basis of office politics. Once it becomes evident to employees that they now have an equal playing field, this would additionally motivate them to prove themselves worthy of recognition and incentives. In line with effective human resource management, public sectors are developing broadband pay systems, which essentially implement broad pay ranges to groupings formed on the basis of like duties while maintaining high flexibility in order to cater to the needs and demands of a diverse workforce. Such pay systems may pose both advantages and disadvantages to the employees and agencies. An example of advantages to the employees is that the method of grouping may provide an opportunity for their positions to be reclassified to a higher grade as indicated by the complexity and breadth of their responsibilities. This would probably work in the favor of an employee who handles several tasks that are usually performed by more than one person in some offices. Another advantage is for the part of government offices because by utilizing high technology and efficient information systems to implement the broadband pay mechanisms, an optimized data gathering method shall be in place and process will be systematized. This would ultimately lead to more practical and efficient use of available human and financial resources, and big cumulative savings for the government. On the other hand, a disadvantage for the agencies could be that negotiations on job classifications or groupings might require them to disclose to labor unions sensitive information that might result to operational security concerns. How can an organization utilize employee benefits as part of its recruitment and retention efforts? How can an organization’s commitment to learning result in lower worker turnover? How do issues related to employee benefits and learning affect worker performance? Human resource is the best asset that any establishment could possibly have. Every day, a great number of organizations and establishments rise up or crumble by the excellence or mediocrity of their employees. In fact, any institution may employ the best possible technologies and may even be in the most dynamic and progressive industry but all these would not make the business a success if without talented and skillful employees. Thus to ensure the best possible recruits and the capacity to retain the most seasoned and esteemed talents, organizations build attractive compensation packages and employee development programs. By nurturing employees under these development programs and with attractive rewards, organizations hope to keep the loyalty of their talent pool and add new recruits that possess the same aptitude and skills. All these steps are taken by organizations under the knowledge that all employees would base their employer preferences that cater to their needs and growth t he most. Furthermore, these needs and growth expectations must be taken to mean not just financial benefits but more importantly how the organization could enrich one’s talents and allow him or her to maximize potentials. In order to nurture its talent pool, organizations may enroll their employees to various classes that teach or further establish the knowledge that they have related to the tasks that they perform in the office. Through these classes, employees develop a sense of fulfillment and satisfaction because they find that they are able to tap in to more of their potentials. Thus, with the knowledge that there are more things that they could learn and do, they find that they also have more to offer the organization that they are part of. By allowing their employees to grow into high potential individuals, organizations not only keep their employees loyal and their turnover rates low, they also gain from the enriched talents and skills that their human resources apply in their day to day work. An organization’s spending on training and development programs for its employees is part of its human resource investment. As with products sold in banks or stock market, or purchases of equipments by production companies, expenses incurred by organizations related to employee training are acknowledged with the expectation that they will bring forth returns to the organization by way of improved employee performances that lead to better working processes and achievement of the organization’s vision and mission. Pershing, Stolovitch, and Keeps (2006) further support the relationship between employee performance and learning by stating that the latter allows the workforce to become more connected to the organization through an increased knowledge of how better he could be of service, and that the nurturing process offered to these employees allow them to be better prepared for changes and more open to process improvements. In essence, all employees are practical individuals in that they stay in the organization that appreciate them the most and reward them sufficiently for the quality of work that they render. It is with this knowledge that organizations build progressive employee benefit and retention programs. These organizations know all too well that employees perform best under development and reward programs that offer holistic growth. Such growth pertains to several factors in the lives of an individual. Compare and contrast the difference in terminating workers in public organizations versus private companies? What at the implications of at-will employment for public sector workers? One of the major differences between public organizations and private companies is the objective or mission with which their workforce operates. As established earlier, public sector workers can be largely considered as volunteers for social, economic, and even political causes whereas the workforce of private companies are mostly there for profitable gains. This in mind, the mere concept of a decrease in the workforce in the public sector poses several challenges because it may not be easy for the organization to come by public servants who are willing to work for the same cause. One way in which the workforce of any institution is reduced is thru employee termination. Termination is the process by which the organization puts a stop to an individual’s membership or service to the organization against his or her will. There are various reasons why termination is imposed on an individual. It may be that the employee has violated certain organizational policies or ethical standards, or rendered unsatisfactory job performance, or may even have been because he or she had a conflict with his or her supervisor. On the other hand, the employee may also be subject to termination when the company undergoes a restructuring phase that necessitated downsizing in its workforce, or if the employee’s responsibilities have been found to be redundant. Employee termination occurs in both public and private offices but there are some notable differences. One such difference is that employees of private companies are often hired under contract whereas those working in public offices are often employed at-will, meaning that they do not have a formal employment contract binding him or her and the employer. Although all employees are protected by labor laws, employees in the public sector are more vulnerable to termination because of the at-will nature of their employment.

H R Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

H R - Essay Example Therefore, Job analyst, specification and selection of people become an important part in the hiring cycle. Furthermore, these are now turn into a vital stage of company development and improvement. Over an over, hiring become a strategic analysis in which the overall strategy (growth, consolidation, diversification, etc), key human resources needed to achieve strategy & workforce characteristics and behaviors required of key human resources are planed & discussed ahead of time. In this report, we will discuss the different stages of hiring a new staff on board and how to make the right choice of getting the right person on-board. We will also look at how strategic human resource manager could provide useful to the board of management as to maximize company efficiency and profitability. From a manager stand point, hiring is not just about finding a candidate to ill in the job vacancies, but also about how to help company to find the best person to join. As a result, this is a process to increase team efficiency & hence become more productive and leads higher profitability. In fact, it is very costly to have the wrong person in the job and to have to replace them. The critical factor in assuring manager makes the right employee selection for hiring or promotion or lateral move is the ability to accurately predict the cultural & soft skill fit of the candidates with the job and at the same time, it is the line manager role to think of the hard skills needed on the job, that is job analyst and its another strategic plan for companies to attract potential talent person to join the team (Youndt, 1996). The line manager must clearly identify the kind of job responsibility he needs for the team and the types of person he wants to fit in the role. Also, the qualification of the candidates and the source of the applicants are also very critical decision making process for line

Garmin Analysis - Following the Business Decisions Research Paper

Garmin Analysis - Following the Business Decisions - Research Paper Example Apart from this, Garmin’s return on capital employed, equity and shareholders’ funds have all declined due to lower profitability in 2011. There are no significant changes recorded in the balance sheet of the company apart from the increase in investment in marketable securities and the issuance of additional paid in capital (Garmin, 2011). Â   2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 Current Ratio 2.98 3.73 3.50 4.14 2.91 Acid Test Ratio 2.51 3.16 3.05 3.25 2.28 Return on Capital Employed 0.27 0.39 0.49 0.77 0.89 Return on Equity 0.16 0.19 0.25 0.33 0.36 Return on Ordinary Shareholders' Funds (ROSF) 28.98 32.52 70.30 73.15 78.81 (Garmin, 2011; Garmin, 2010; Garmin, 2009; Garmin, 2008) Cash Flow Trends As far as the cash flows from operating activities are concerned, the company managed to improve the picture through efficient performance in 2011. Although the net income of the company declined slightly in comparison with the previous financial year, the management still managed to sh ow an increase in the operating cash flows. Â   2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 Operating Cash Flows 822,334 770,637 1,094,456 862,164 682,088 Investing Cash Flows (488,198) (72,869) (547,869) (56,349) (175,695) Financing Cash Flows (307,413) (510,821) (161,243) (809,109) (136,117) (Garmin, 2011; Garmin, 2010; Garmin, 2009; Garmin, 2008) On the other hand, cash flows from investing activities remained negative as they have continued to be the same in the past years. However, in 2011 there has been a significant rise in the negative balance of cash outflows from investing activities. The reason behind this significant increase is the purchase of marketable securities by the company worth $ 1,172,555,000 in 2011. Similar to the trends shown in cash flows from investing activities, the cash flows from financing activities have also continued to show negative balance in 2011 as they have been in the previous four years. Major Capital Expenditures The major capital expenditures of the company in 2011, as mentioned earlier in the balance sheet analysis, included the purchase of $ 1,172,555,000. This purchase is in line with the investment policy of the company, in light of which, the company aims at investing in less risky securities. In 2011, the net investments of Garmin in fixed securities increased to $ 491 million as compared to the figure of $ 25.5 million in 2010. The result of these safe play investment decisions has earned Garmin returns of 1.7 percent in 2011 (Garmin, 2011). Although this investment policy may be justified on the grounds that there are still traces of the recent financial crisis which can influence risky play, but at the same time, it is expected that Garmin’s management shall be more prolific in determining the course of its business by exploring investment or capital expenditure options which are more effective and helpful in enabling the company to regain its lost momentum (Cavallaro, 2009). Apart from this, the company acquired severa l business entities, which is appreciable since it will allow the company to stretch its market presence further. The recently acquired business entities include NAVIGON AG, TriTronics Inc. and two other worldwide distributing companies. Although the company has faced fierce competition from other brands and has faced threatening anticipations of market share loss due to the popularity gained by smart

Argument Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 6

Argument Analysis - Essay Example is thesis statement is that violent entertainment can be good for children, because it helps them to manage their feelings, especially anger and fear. The fact that his thesis statement is so clear to the reader, makes his overall argument easy to understand and follow, because the reader does not have to guess what the author’s argument is, because it is mentioned in the text. On the one hand, Gerard Jones gives a lot of examples of how violent media has helped children in different situations, including himself and his son. This makes his argument strong and believable, especially, because he writes about working together with Melanie Moore, who is a psychologist. The fact that he is working together with a psychologist makes his argumentation look scientific and professional. On the other hand, he does not use any statistics, which weakens his argumentation that violent entertainment helps a lot of children and only harms a few. His argument would appear to be stronger and even more scientific, if supported by statistics. In addition, the reader might think that not all relevant factors have been considered in the text, because he just claims that violent media is mostly good for children, but does not support it with any data. Gerard Jones seems to target mostly adults, especially those adults who are also parents. In the last part of the text, he uses â€Å"we† (for adults/ parents) and â€Å"they† (for children), for example, he says: â€Å"We moan to other parents† and â€Å"We risk confusing them†. Jones gains his audience’s trust by telling them about his own and his son’s experience with violent media and how it helped both of them. By writing about his experience, the audience feels as if a relationship is established, which in turn makes him trustworthy. So, writing about his own experience is the first part of his strategy and the second part is to write about his work with the psychologist Melanie Moore and examples about how violent media has

Analysis Australian industries Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Analysis Australian industries - Research Paper Example 350). In fact the Australian per capita GDP is better than Britain, France and Germany. Australia always maintained a position in the top 20 developed countries in the world. Service sector is mainly contributing to the Australian economy apart from agriculture and mining. In 1900, Australia was the highest income country in the world. By 1950 it slipped to the third position, in 1970 it was in the 8 th position whereas its position further slipped down to 26 th in 1999 (Anderson, K. 2001, p.33) This paper briefly explains the environmental factors like technological element, economic element, legal-political element, socio- cultural element and international element which affect the Australian industrial growth. The importance of technological development cannot be underestimated in any business. â€Å"The technological element reflects current knowledge about product and service generation† (Bartol et al, 2008, p.43). Technological advancement gives an organization competitive power in the market. For example, consider two firms; first one still using typewriters and fax machines for typing and sending documents whereas the second one using computers and internet for the same purpose. The second firm will get more competitive advantage in the market compared to the first firm because of the better technology it uses for the communication process. As mentioned earlier, service sector, agriculture and mining sector are the major contributors for the Australian economy and the role of technological advancements are critical in these sectors. Banking, finance, insurance, tourism, media, entertainment food etc are some of the major service sectors in Australia which needs technological advancements (Service Sector—World class tertiary industries, 2009). For example, it is difficult for the banking sector to use rely on conventional means to improve the business. Internet banking, mobile

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 35

Assignment Example In addition, surgeries and medical therapies prevent cancer in patients who are at a high risk of getting cancer due to their genes. There are women who opt to undergo mastectomy even before they get the cancer because some of their close relatives have breast cancer (Eccles, 2011). Immunizations are important in protecting people from viral infections like hepatitis B, which increases risks of liver cancer, and HPV, which is responsible for cervical cancer. Moreover, people should lead healthy lifestyles by exercising regularly, eating healthy diets and avoiding tobacco. High cholesterols associated with unhealthy diets and not exercising leads to high estrogen levels, which may cause breast cancer and tobacco causes lung cancer. People should also avoid long exposure to the sun and x-rays as this may cause skin cancer (Eccles, 2011). Breast cancer starts in the breast’s tissues. Genes, family history, early onset of menstrual cycle or late menopause and other factors like gender and age are the causes of breast cancer. Its symptoms include fluid coming out of the nipples or lumps. It is tested using MRI, ultrasound or biopsy. Treatments include mastectomy, lumpectomy, chemotherapy and radiation therapy (A.D.A.M, 2013). Prostate cancer starts in the prostate glands around the urethra. African American men and men over 60 years of age have a high risk of getting prostate cancer. Symptoms appear later as the cancer grows larger and they include leaking urine, blood in urine and slow urinary system. Testing is done using MRI, scans and biopsy. It is treated using surgery and radiation therapy (A.D.A.M, 2013). Cervical cancer starts at the cervical cells. Women with multiple sexual partners and those who started having sex at an early age have a higher risk of getting cervical cancer. Symptoms include heavy menstruation, vaginal discharge and abnormal vaginal bleeding. Pap smear, con biopsy and cervix magnification detect cervical cancer.

Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 23

Marketing - Essay Example The company has over 1200 employees and a revenue turnover of over $1.2 billion .The services provided are insurance and financial services that are aimed at supporting the families that are affected by the death of their loved ones (Plant 2000). The organization has over 1.7 million members and over 13000 councils in countries such as the Philippines, Canada, Mexico, Guam the Bahamas, Virgin Islands, Cuba, Poland Dominican Republic amongst other states (Bayse2008). The main purpose of its existence is that of instilling practical catholic discipline on its members so that they can understand the norms and beliefs of the religion. Knights of Columbus also promote catholic education and charity to its members so that they can learn how to carry out their activities in the future. The core values of this organization are charitable work, Catholicism and acts of volunteering. For example in the year 2003, over $130 million efforts were contributed and over $ 60 million hours were contributed to the church and other projects. They promote the intellectual and social integration to its members through the provision of education, charitable work, social welfare and relief in both the war and the public domain. With time Knights of Columbus was able to venture into the insurance industry whereby they were to offer financial compensation to its members in case a financial loss occurred. According to Anderson, the main mission of the Company is to prote ct the interests of the catholic families with life insurance. A service refers to the work done by people on behalf of their customers so that they can derive some benefit from it. The management of the organization issues insurance policies to its customers in form of thousands of dollars who are of ages 18 to 60 years so that they can benefit from the services provided to them within the stipulated period of time. It also

Adolescence developmental stages Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Adolescence developmental stages - Essay Example â€Å"At sixteen,the adolescent knows about suffering because he himself has suffered,but he barely knows that other beings also suffer.†This idea of adolescent by Jean Jacques Rousseau demonstrates that adolescent is a challenging stage in human development Problems of behavior and adjustment for a new role in the society bring about conflicts within an adolescent, the family and community in general. Looking back on my adolescent years, I find the above description to be true. In the early years of my adolescent period, I find it uncomfortable to experience the physical changes I had been undergoing that time. This change made me struggle to hide my developing breast and widening hips. I always wanted privacy when changing clothes. However, in the midst of these changes is the interesting attraction to the opposite sex. This was the time I became creative in writing love notes to my crush. The time to discussed with peers the most handsome guy in the classroom, has the lates t car, the coolest guy to be with and many other fancy things to talk about regarding the opposite sex of my same age including older males. It is the period I told lies to my parents to be out of the house just to have a look at my crush. I also became secretive to my parents as well as to my brothers and sister about my feelings towards males. As I reached middle adolescence, the more that I pay attention to how I project myself to be more attractive to males. Hairstyle and dress code appropriate for my age became important. I was always on the lookout for magazines for new looks to incorporate to my fashion style. This is because I wanted to be more popular than any other girls my age in my own little ways. Sometimes I exhibited a punk hairstyle and dressed differently alerting my parents to express distasteful of my style since they always wanted me to dress the way they like it to be. According to them, my stylish fashion is considered bizarre. Apart from this, I find it more c omfortable to be with my circle of friends than with my family since there are no objections, restrictions and rules to follow. One memorable event that comes to mind every time I flashback to my adolescent stage was when I had my first date. It was late one evening in summer along the river bank in my community; a cold wind was blowing as I stroll close to my date holding hands together, laughing, giggling and enjoying each other’s company. Hugging and trying to experience the first kiss out of curiosity was attempted too however, all those emotional attraction ended just with an unforgettable kiss. I enjoyed those moments that I forgot the curfew time my parents set for me. When I reached home, the feeling of euphoria was suddenly changed to tormenting moments as my parents scolded me for violating such rule at an early age of barely 15. The above scenario not only prompted me to consider independency but also caused conflicts between me and my parents. Their expression of bewilderment on how I behave and the arguments confused me as to what behavior is appropriate since what I know that time was that I just want to enjoy life and that I was not stepping on someone’s rights. Nevertheless, I am hated by the way I live my life as a teenager. However, as the final years of my adolescence stretched, my relationship with my family improved and my attention gradually was focused on my studies as it is what I really wanted to do to have a career in the future. To understand why an adolescent behave the way they do at this period is to take into consideration theories that apply. Being attracted to the opposite sex is normal for every teenager to experience as was pointed out in Freud’s psychosexual theory. Accordingly, adolescence is the time where there is the resurgence of sex drive that is focused at the genital regions. As a result, adolescents are fascinated with nude magazines and

Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 17

Article Example As asserted by Thoreau (para 18), injustice cases are counted-friction to the government machine because when found to have broken a particular law then the person is put in prison for unlimited period determined by the discretion of those who put one in the prison. Thoreau provides us with the story in jail so that we can visualize the poor rule of the state including its accusations for the example Thoreau’s roommate was accused of burning a barn and the tedious trial process (Thoreau para 28-35). Thoreau being in jail made him has various thoughts because he had never expected to be held and to be in custody for one night was like a novel. Thoreau (para 25) proposes that, it is ironical to the state to order Thoreau to pay a certain sum to support a clergyman whose preaching was attended by Thoreau’s father. This is effective in exposing to us the weakness of the state power. The majority view of the government is that most governments carry out its activities at its expediency as contrary to the minority as was the basis of Thoreau justice was democracy (Thoreau para 45). A Chinese philosopher who regarded that individual is the basis of empire is not Lao-Tzu but there is a progress to individual respect and such democracy is yet to be

Political philosophy Essay Example for Free

Political philosophy Essay Thomas Hobbes was born in Wiltshire, England on 5 April 1588 | birth_place = some sources say Malmesbury[2]). Born prematurely on April 5, 1588, when his mother heard of the coming invasion of the Spanish Armada, Thomas Hobbes later reported that my mother gave birth to twins: myself and fear. [3] His childhood is almost a complete blank, and his mothers name is unknown. [4] His father, also named Thomas, was the vicar of Charlton and Westport. Thomas Sr. abandoned his three children to the care of an older brother, Thomas juniors uncle Francis, when he was forced to flee to London after being involved in a fight with a clergyman outside his own church. Hobbes was educated at Westport church from the age of four, passed to the Malmesbury school and then to a private school kept by a young man named Robert Latimer, a graduate of the University of Oxford. Hobbes was a good pupil, and around 1603 he went up to Magdalen Hall, which is most closely related to Hertford College, Oxford. [5][6][7][8] The principal John Wilkinson was a Puritan, and he had some influence on Hobbes. At university, Hobbes appears to have followed his own curriculum; he was little attracted by the scholastic learning. He did not complete his B. A. degree until 1608, but he was recommended by Sir James Hussey, his master at Magdalen, as tutor to William, the son of William Cavendish, Baron of Hardwick (and later Earl of Devonshire), and began a life-long connection with that family. [9] Hobbes became a companion to the younger William and they both took part in a grand tour in 1610. Hobbes was exposed to European scientific and critical methods during the tour in contrast to the scholastic philosophy which he had learned in Oxford. His scholarly efforts at the time were aimed at a careful study of classic Greek and Latin authors, the outcome of which was, in 1628, his great translation of Thucydides History of the Peloponnesian War, the first translation of that work into English from a Greek manuscript. Although he associated with literary figures like Ben Jonson and thinkers such as Francis Bacon, he did not extend his efforts into philosophy until after 1629. His employer Cavendish, then the Earl of Devonshire, died of the plague in June 1628. The widowed countess dismissed Hobbes but he soon found work, again as a tutor, this time to the son of Sir Gervase Clifton. This task, chiefly spent in Paris, ended in 1631 when he again found work with the Cavendish family, tutoring the son of his previous pupil. Over the next seven years as well as tutoring he expanded his own knowledge of philosophy, awakening in him curiosity over key philosophic debates. He visited Florence in 1636 and later was a regular debater in philosophic groups in Paris, held together by Marin Mersenne. From 1637 he considered himself a philosopher and scholar. In Paris Hobbess first area of study was an interest in the physical doctrine of motion and physical momentum. Despite his interest in this phenomenon, he disdained experimental work as in physics. He went on to conceive the system of thought to the elaboration of which he would devote his life. His scheme was first to work out, in a separate treatise, a systematic doctrine of body, showing how physical phenomena were universally explicable in terms of motion, at least as motion or mechanical action was then understood. He then singled out Man from the realm of Nature and plants. Then, in another treatise, he showed what specific bodily motions were involved in the production of the peculiar phenomena of sensation, knowledge, affections and passions whereby Man came into relation with Man. Finally he considered, in his crowning treatise, how Men were moved to enter into society, and argued how this must be regulated if Men were not to fall back into brutishness and misery. Thus he proposed to unite the separate phenomena of Body, Man, and the State. Hobbes came home, in 1637, to a country riven with discontent which disrupted him from the orderly execution of his philosophic plan. However, by the end of the Short Parliament in 1640, he had written a short treatise called The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic. It was not published and only circulated among his acquaintances in manuscript form. A pirated version, however, was published about ten years later. Although it seems that much of The Elements of Law was composed before the sitting of the Short Parliament, there are polemical pieces of the work that clearly mark the influences of the rising political crisis. Nevertheless, many (though not all) elements of Hobbess political thought were unchanged between The Elements of Law and Leviathan, which demonstrates that the events of the English Civil War had little effect on his contractarian methodology. It should be noted, however, that the arguments in Leviathan were modified from The Elements of Law when it came to the necessity of consent in creating political obligation. Namely, Hobbes wrote in The Elements of Law that Patrimonial kingdoms were not necessarily formed by the consent of the governed, while in Leviathan he argued that they were. This was perhaps a reflection either of Hobbess thoughts concerning the engagement controversy or of his reaction to treatises published by Patriarchalists, such as Sir Robert Filmer, between 1640 and 1651. When in November 1640 the Long Parliament succeeded the Short, Hobbes felt he was a marked man by the circulation of his treatise and fled to Paris. He did not return for eleven years. In Paris he rejoined the coterie about Mersenne, and wrote a critique of the Meditations on First Philosophy of Descartes, which was printed as third among the sets of Objections appended, with Replies from Descartes in 1641. A different set of remarks on other works by Descartes succeeded only in ending all correspondence between the two. Hobbes also extended his own works somewhat, working on the third section, De Cive, which was finished in November 1641. Although it was initially only circulated privately, it was well received, and included lines of argumentation to be repeated a decade later in the Leviathan. He then returned to hard work on the first two sections of his work and published little except for a short treatise on optics (Tractatus opticus) included in the collection of scientific tracts published by Mersenne as Cogitata physico-mathematica in 1644. He built a good reputation in philosophic circles and in 1645 was chosen with Descartes, Gilles de Roberval and others, to referee the controversy between John Pell and Longomontanus over the problem of squaring the circle. The Civil War in England The English Civil War broke out in 1642, and when the Royalist cause began to decline in the middle of 1644 there was an exodus of the kings supporters to Europe. Many came to Paris and were known to Hobbes. This revitalised Hobbess political interests and the De Cive was republished and more widely distributed. The printing began in 1646 by Samuel de Sorbiere through the Elsevier press at Amsterdam with a new preface and some new notes in reply to objections. In 1647, Hobbes was engaged as mathematical instructor to the young Charles, Prince of Wales,[10] who had come over from Jersey around July. This engagement lasted until 1648 when Charles went to Holland. The company of the exiled royalists led Hobbes to produce an English book to set forth his theory of civil government in relation to the political crisis resulting from the war. The State, it now seemed to Hobbes, might be regarded as a great artificial man or monster (Leviathan), composed of men, with a life that might be traced from its generation under pressure of human needs to its dissolution through civil strife proceeding from human passions. The work was closed with a general Review and Conclusion, in direct response to the war which raised the question of the subjects right to change allegiance when a former sovereigns power to protect was irrecoverably gone. Also he criticized religious doctrines on rationalistic grounds in the Commonwealth. Frontispiece from De Cive (1642) During the years of the composition of Leviathan he remained in or near Paris. In 1647 Hobbes was overtaken by a serious illness which disabled him for six months. On recovering from this near fatal disorder, he resumed his literary task, and carried it steadily forward to completion by the year 1650. Meanwhile, a translation of De Cive was being produced; there has been much scholarly disagreement over whether Hobbes translated the work himself or not. In 1650, a pirated edition of The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic was published. It was divided into two separate small volumes (Human Nature, or the Fundamental Elements of Policie and De corpore politico, or the Elements of Law, Moral and Politick). In 1651 the translation of De Cive was published under the title of Philosophicall Rudiments concerning Government and Society. Meanwhile, the printing of the greater work was proceeding, and finally it appeared about the middle of 1651, under the title of Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Common Wealth, Ecclesiasticall and Civil, with a famous title-page engraving in which, from behind hills overlooking a landscape, there towered the body (above the waist) of a crowned giant, made up of tiny figures of human beings and bearing sword and crozier in the two hands. The work had immediate impact. Soon Hobbes was more lauded and decried than any other thinker of his time. However, the first effect of its publication was to sever his link with the exiled royalists, forcing him to appeal to the revolutionary English government for protection. The exiles might very well have killed him; the secularist spirit of his book greatly angered both Anglicans and French Catholics. Hobbes fled back home, arriving in London in the winter of 1651. Following his submission to the council of state he was allowed to subside into private life in Fetter Lane. Leviathan Main article: Leviathan (book) Frontispiece of Leviathan In Leviathan, Hobbes set out his doctrine of the foundation of states and legitimate governments based on social contract theories. Leviathan was written during the English Civil War; much of the book is occupied with demonstrating the necessity of a strong central authority to avoid the evil of discord and civil war. Beginning from a mechanistic understanding of human beings and the passions, Hobbes postulates what life would be like without government, a condition which he calls the state of nature. In that state, each person would have a right, or license, to everything in the world. This inevitably leads to conflict, a war of all against all (bellum omnium contra omnes), and thus lives that are solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short (xiii). To escape this state of war, men in the state of nature accede to a social contract and establish a civil society. According to Hobbes, society is a population beneath a sovereign authority, to whom all individuals in that society cede their natural rights for the sake of protection. Any abuses of power by this authority are to be accepted as the price of peace. However, he also states that in severe cases of abuse, rebellion is expected. In particular, the doctrine of separation of powers is rejected:[11] the sovereign must control civil, military, judicial and ecclesiastical powers. Leviathan was also well-known for its radical religious views, which were often Hobbess attempt to reinterpret scripture from his materialist assumptions. His denial of incorporeal entities led him write, for example, that Heaven and Hell were places on Earth, and to take other positions out of sync with church teachings of his time. Much has been made of his religious views by scholars such as Richard Tuck and J. G. A. Pocock, but there is still widespread disagreement about the significance of Leviathans contents concerning religion. Many have taken the work to mean that Hobbes was an atheist, while others find the evidence for this position insufficient. Locke John Locke (pronounced /l? k/; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704) was an English philosopher. Locke is considered the first of the British empiricists, but is equally important to social contract theory. His ideas had enormous influence on the development of epistemology and political philosophy, and he is widely regarded as one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, classical republicans, and contributors to liberal theory. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. This influence is reflected in the American Declaration of Independence. [1] Lockes theory of mind is often cited as the origin for modern conceptions of identity and the self, figuring prominently in the later works of philosophers such as David Hume, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Immanuel Kant. Locke was the first philosopher to define the self through a continuity of consciousness. He also postulated that the mind was a blank slate or tabula rasa; that is, contrary to Cartesian or Christian philosophy, Locke maintained that people are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience derived by sense perception. [2] Contents[hide] * 1 Life * 1. 1 Epitaph * 2 Influence * 2. 1 Constitution of Carolina * 2. 2 Theory of value and property * 2. 3 Political theory * 2. 3. 1 Limits to accumulation * 2. 4 On price theory * 2. 4. 1 Monetary thoughts * 2. 5 The self * 3 List of major works * 3. 1 Major unpublished or posthumous manuscripts * 4 Secondary literature * 5 See also * 6 Notes * 7 Further reading * 8 External links * 8. 1 Works * 8. 2 Resources| Life Lockes father, who was also named John Locke, was a country lawyer and clerk to the Justices of the Peace in Chew Magna,[3] who had served as a captain of cavalry for the Parliamentarian forces during the early part of the English Civil War. His mother, Agnes Keene, was a tanners daughter and reputed to be very beautiful. Both parents were Puritans. Locke was born on 29 August 1632, in a small thatched cottage by the church in Wrington, Somerset, about twelve miles from Bristol. He was baptized the same day. Soon after Lockes birth, the family moved to the market town of Pensford, about seven miles south of Bristol, where Locke grew up in a rural Tudor house in Belluton. In 1647, Locke was sent to the prestigious Westminster School in London under the sponsorship of Alexander Popham, a member of Parliament and former commander of the younger Lockes father. After completing his studies there, he was admitted to Christ Church, Oxford. The dean of the college at the time was John Owen, vice-chancellor of the university. Although a capable student, Locke was irritated by the undergraduate curriculum of the time. He found the works of modern philosophers, such as Rene Descartes, more interesting than the classical material taught at the university. Through his friend Richard Lower, whom he knew from the Westminster School, Locke was introduced to medicine and the experimental philosophy being pursued at other universities and in the English Royal Society, of which he eventually became a member. Locke was awarded a bachelors degree in 1656 and a masters degree in 1658. He obtained a bachelor of medicine in 1674, having studied medicine extensively during his time at Oxford and worked with such noted scientists and thinkers as Robert Boyle, Thomas Willis, Robert Hooke and Richard Lower. In 1666, he met Lord Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, who had come to Oxford seeking treatment for a liver infection. Cooper was impressed with Locke and persuaded him to become part of his retinue. Locke had been looking for a career and in 1667 moved into Shaftesburys home at Exeter House in London, to serve as Lord Ashleys personal physician. In London, Locke resumed his medical studies under the tutelage of Thomas Sydenham. Sydenham had a major effect on Lockes natural philosophical thinking – an effect that would become evident in the An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Lockes medical knowledge was put to the test when Shaftesburys liver infection became life-threatening. Locke coordinated the advice of several physicians and was probably instrumental in persuading Shaftesbury to undergo an operation (then life-threatening itself) to remove the cyst. Shaftesbury survived and prospered, crediting Locke with saving his life. It was in Shaftesburys household, during 1671, that the meeting took place, described in the Epistle to the reader of the Essay, which was the genesis of what would later become the Essay. Two extant Drafts still survive from this period. It was also during this time that Locke served as Secretary of the Board of Trade and Plantations and Secretary to the Lords and Proprietors of the Carolinas, helping to shape his ideas on international trade and economics. Shaftesbury, as a founder of the Whig movement, exerted great influence on Lockes political ideas. Locke became involved in politics when Shaftesbury became Lord Chancellor in 1672. Following Shaftesburys fall from favour in 1675, Locke spent some time travelling across France. He returned to England in 1679 when Shaftesburys political fortunes took a brief positive turn. Around this time, most likely at Shaftesburys prompting, Locke composed the bulk of the Two Treatises of Government. Locke wrote the Treatises to defend the Glorious Revolution of 1688, but also to counter the absolutist political philosophy of Sir Robert Filmer and Thomas Hobbes. Though Locke was associated with the influential Whigs, his ideas about natural rights and government are today considered quite revolutionary for that period in English history. However, Locke fled to the Netherlands, Holland, in 1683, under strong suspicion of involvement in the Rye House Plot (though there is little evidence to suggest that he was directly involved in the scheme). In the Netherlands Locke had time to return to his writing, spending a great deal of time re-working the Essay and composing the Letter on Toleration. Locke did not return home until after the Glorious Revolution. Locke accompanied William of Oranges wife back to England in 1688. The bulk of Lockes publishing took place after his arrival back in England – his aforementioned Essay Concerning Human Understanding, the Two Treatises of Civil Government and A Letter Concerning Toleration all appearing in quick succession upon his return from exile. John Locke Lockes close friend Lady Masham invited him to join her at the Mashams country house in Essex. Although his time there was marked by variable health from asthma attacks, he nevertheless became an intellectual hero of the Whigs. During this period he discussed matters with such figures as John Dryden and Isaac Newton. He died in 28 October 1704, and is buried in the churchyard of the village of High Laver,[4] east of Harlow in Essex, where he had lived in the household of Sir Francis Masham since 1691. Locke never married nor had children. Events that happened during Lockes lifetime include the English Restoration, the Great Plague of London and the Great Fire of London. He did not quite see the Act of Union of 1707, though the thrones of England and Scotland were held in personal union throughout his lifetime. Constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy were in their infancy during Lockes time. Epitaph Original Latin: â€Å"| SISTE VIATOR Hic juxta situs est JOHANNES LOCKE. Si qualis fuerit rogas, mediocritate sua contentum se vixesse respondet. Literis innutritus eo usque tantum profecit, ut veritati unice litaret. Hoc ex scriptis illius disce, quae quod de eo reliquum est majori fide tibe exhibebunt, quam epitaphii suspecta elogia. Virtutes si quas habuit, minores sane quam sibi laudi duceret tibi in exemplum proponeret; vita una sepeliantur. Morum exemplum si squaeras in Evangelio habes: vitiorum utinam nusquam: mortalitatis certe (quod prosit) hic et ubique. 1632 Aug. 29Mortuum Anno Dom. 1704 Oct. 28Memorat haec tabula brevi et ipse interitura. | †| English Translation: â€Å"| STOP TRAVELLER Near this place lies JOHN LOCKE. If you are wondering what kind of man he was, he answers that he was contented with his modest lot. Bred a scholar, he made his learning subservient only to the cause of truth. You will learn this from his writings, which will show you everything about him more truthfully than the suspect praises of an epitaph. His virtues, if indeed he had any, were too slight to be lauded by him or to be an example to you. Let his vices be buried with him. Of virtue you have an example in the gospels, should you desire it; of vice would there were none for you; of mortality surely you have one here and everywhere, and may you learn from it. That he was born on the 29th of August in the year of our Lord 1632and that he died on the 28th of October in the year of our Lord 1704this tablet, which itself will soon perish, is a record. | †| Influence Locke exercised a profound influence on political philosophy, in particular on modern liberalism. Michael Zuckert has in fact argued that Locke launched liberalism by tempering Hobbesian absolutism and clearly separating the realms of Church and State. He had a strong influence on Voltaire who called him le sage Locke. His arguments concerning liberty and the social contract later influenced the written works of Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and other Founding Fathers of the United States. In fact, several passages from the Second Treatise are reproduced verbatim in the Declaration of Independence, most notably the reference to a long train of abuses. Such was Lockes influence, Thomas Jefferson wrote; Bacon, Locke and Newton.. I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical and Moral sciences. [5][6] Today, most contemporary libertarians claim Locke as an influence. But Lockes influence may have been even more profound in the realm of epistemology. Locke redefined subjectivity, or self, and intellectual historians such as Charles Taylor and Jerrold Seigel argue that Lockes Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) marks the beginning of the modern conception of the self. [7] Constitution of Carolina Appraisals of Locke have often been tied to appraisals of liberalism in general, and also to appraisals of the United States. Detractors note that (in 1671) he was a major investor in the English slave-trade through the Royal Africa Company, as well as through his participation in drafting the Fundamental Constitution of the Carolinas while Shaftesburys secretary, which established a feudal aristocracy and gave a master absolute power over his slaves. They note that as a secretary to the Council of Trade and Plantations (1673-4) and a member of the Board of Trade (1696-1700) Locke was, in fact, one of just half a dozen men who created and supervised both the colonies and their iniquitous systems of servitude[8] Some see his statements on unenclosed property as having justified the displacement of the Native Americans. Because of his opposition to aristocracy and slavery in his major writings, he is accused of hypocrisy, or of caring only for the liberty of English capitalists. Theory of value and property. Locke uses the word property in both broad and narrow senses. In a broad sense, it covers a wide range of human interests and aspirations; more narrowly, it refers to material goods. He argues that property is a natural right and it is derived from labor. Locke believed that ownership of property is created by the application of labor. In addition, property precedes government and government cannot dispose of the estates of the subjects arbitrarily. Karl Marx later critiqued Lockes theory of property in his social theory. Political theory. See also: Two Treatises of Government Lockes political theory was founded on social contract theory. Unlike Thomas Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature is characterized by reason and tolerance. Like Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature allowed men to be selfish. This is apparent with the introduction of currency. In a natural state all people were equal and independent, and everyone had a natural right to defend his â€Å"Life, health, Liberty, or Possessions, basis for the phrase in America; Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. [9] Like Hobbes, Locke assumed that the sole right to defend in the state of nature was not enough, so people established a civil society to resolve conflicts in a civil way with help from government in a state of society. However, Locke never refers to Hobbes by name[10] and may instead have been responding to other writers of the day. [11] Locke also advocated governmental separation of powers and believed that revolution is not only a right but an obligation in some circumstances. These ideas would come to have profound influence on the Constitution of the United States and its Declaration of Independence. Limits to accumulation Labor creates property, but it also does contain limits to its accumulation: man’s capacity to produce and man’s capacity to consume. According to Locke, unused property is waste and an offense against nature. However, with the introduction of â€Å"durable† goods, men could exchange their excessive perishable goods for goods that would last longer and thus not offend the natural law. The introduction of money marks the culmination of this process. Money makes possible the unlimited accumulation of property without causing waste through spoilage. He also includes gold or silver as money because they may be â€Å"hoarded up without injury to anyone,† since they do not spoil or decay in the hands of the possessor. The introduction of money eliminates the limits of accumulation. Locke stresses that inequality has come about by tacit agreement on the use of money, not by the social contract establishing civil society or the law of land regulating property. Locke is aware of a problem posed by unlimited accumulation but does not consider it his task. He just implies that government would function to moderate the conflict between the unlimited accumulation of property and a more nearly equal distribution of wealth and does not say which principles that government should apply to solve this problem. However, not all elements of his thought form a consistent whole. For example, labor theory of value of the Two Treatises of Government stands side by side with the demand-and-supply theory developed in a letter he wrote titled Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money. Moreover, Locke anchors property in labor but in the end upholds the unlimited accumulation of wealth. On price theory Locke’s general theory of value and price is a supply and demand theory, which was set out in a letter to a Member of Parliament in 1691, titled Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money. [12] Supply is quantity and demand is rent. â€Å"The price of any commodity rises or falls by the proportion of the number of buyer and sellers. † and â€Å"that which regulates the price[of goods] is nothing else but their quantity in proportion to their rent. † The quantity theory of money forms a special case of this general theory. His idea is based on â€Å"money answers all things† (Ecclesiastes) or â€Å"rent of money is always sufficient, or more than enough,† and â€Å"varies very little†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Regardless of whether the demand for money is unlimited or constant, Locke concludes that as far as money is concerned, the demand is exclusively regulated by its quantity. He also investigates the determinants of demand and supply. For supply, goods in general are considered valuable because they can be exchanged, consumed and they must be scarce. For demand, goods are in demand because they yield a flow of income. Locke develops an early theory of capitalization, such as land, which has value because â€Å"by its constant production of saleable commodities it brings in a certain yearly income. † Demand for money is almost the same as demand for goods or land; it depends on whether money is wanted as medium of exchange or as loanable funds. For medium of exchange â€Å"money is capable by exchange to procure us the necessaries or conveniences of life. † For loanable funds, â€Å"it comes to be of the same nature with land by yielding a certain yearly income †¦ or interest. † Monetary thoughts Locke distinguishes two functions of money, as a counter to measure value, and as a pledge to lay claim to goods. He believes that silver and gold, as opposed to paper money, are the appropriate currency for international transactions. Silver and gold, he says, are treated to have equal value by all of humanity and can thus be treated as a pledge by anyone, while the value of paper money is only valid under the government which issues it. Locke argues that a country should seek a favorable balance of trade, lest it fall behind other countries and suffer a loss in its trade. Since the world money stock grows constantly, a country must constantly seek to enlarge its own stock. Locke develops his theory of foreign exchanges, in addition to commodity movements, there are also movements in country stock of money, and movements of capital determine exchange rates. The latter is less significant and less volatile than commodity movements. As for a country’s money stock, if it is large relative to that of other countries, it will cause the country’s exchange to rise above par, as an export balance would do. He also prepares estimates of the cash requirements for different economic groups (landholders, laborers and brokers). In each group the cash requirements are closely related to the length of the pay period. He argues the brokers – middlemen – whose activities enlarge the monetary circuit and whose profits eat into the earnings of laborers and landholders, had a negative influence on both ones personal and the public economy that they supposedly contributed to. The self Locke defines the self as that conscious thinking thing, (whatever substance, made up of whether spiritual, or material, simple, or compounded, it matters not) which is sensible, or conscious of pleasure and pain, capable of happiness or misery, and so is concerned for itself, as far as that consciousness extends. [13] He does not, however, ignore substance, writing that the body too goes to the making the man. [14] The Lockean self is therefore a self-aware and self-reflective consciousness that is fixed in a body. In his Essay, Locke explains the gradual unfolding of this conscious mind. Arguing against both the Augustinian view of man as originally sinful and the Cartesian position, which holds that man innately knows basic logical propositions, Locke posits an empty mind, a tabula rasa, which is shaped by experience; sensations and reflections being the two sources of all our ideas. [15] Lockes Some Thoughts Concerning Education is an outline on how to educate this mind: he expresses the belief that education maketh the man, or, more fundamentally, that the mind is an empty cabinet, with the statement, I think I may say that of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education. [16] Locke also wrote that the little and almost insensible impressions on our tender infancies have very important and lasting consequences. [17] He argued that the associations of ideas that one makes when young are more important than those made later because they are the foundation of the self: they are, put differently, what first mark the tabula rasa. In his Essay, in which is introduced both of these concepts, Locke warns against, for example, letting a foolish maid convince a child that goblins and sprites are associated with the night for darkness shall ever afterwards bring with it those frightful ideas, and they shall be so joined, that he can no more bear the one than the other. [18] Associationism, as this theory would come to be called, exerted a powerful influence over eighteenth-century thought, particularly educational theory, as nearly every educational writer warned parents not to allow their children to develop negative associations. It also led to the development of psychology and other new disciplines with Dav.

Micro Strip Patch Antenna

Micro Strip Patch Antenna Chapter 1 Introduction The project which we have chosen to do as our final year project for the under graduate program involves the characterization of micro strip patch antenna. In this project we have carried out simulations of different types of antennas, which include dipole, monopole and patch. The purpose of designing all of these is to gain knowledge and experience in the designing of antennas for different purposes by using commercially available CEM. The frequency band, which we have chosen as our relevant band, is the GSM-900 band, which is of wide use in the cellular network. The purpose of choosing this band is to gain valuable knowledge of this frequency band. Antennas are a fundamental part of every system in which wireless or free space is the medium of communication. Basically, an antenna is a transducer and is designed to transmit or receive electromagnetic waves. It is a transducer as it converts radio frequency electrical currents into electromagnetic waves. Common applications of antennas include radio, television broadcasting, point-to-point radio communication, wireless networks and radar. A detailed study of antennas is discussed in chapter two and chapter three of this report. The CEM softwares that we have used for the designing include XFDTD ® provided by Remcom Inc. and CST Microwave Studio ®, which is a full wave, 3-Dimensional, Electromagnetic simulation software and CST Microwave Studio ®. XFDTD ® utilizes a numerical electromagnetic code for antenna design, that is, the finite difference time domain technique (FDTD). Finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) is a popular computational electrodynamics modeling technique. The first antenna structure modeled is the dipole. A dipole antenna consists of two conductors on the same axis with a source at the center. It is also modeled in XFDTD ® by following the procedure provided by the software and mentioned in the Appendix. The results are verified by comparing with analytical papers of (lambda/2) dipole. After completing this, the next goal is to model the micro strip (patch) antenna which is one of the main focuses of this project. It comprises of a metallic patch bonded to a dielectric substrate with a metal layer bonded to the opposite side of the substrate forming a ground plane. This metal layer is very thin. Hence, it can be fabricated very easily using printed circuit techniques. Therefore, they are inexpensive to manufacture and are easily integrate able with microwave integrated circuits. The software modeling is carried out in XFDTD ® and on CST Microwave Studio ®. The verification of the results with the experimental results obtained leads to the final phase and the conclusion of the project. 1.1 Purpose The purpose of this project is to gain knowledge and experience about computational electromagnetic, as it applies to antenna design. It was also our sole purpose to gain experience in fabrication and experimental characterization of micro strip patch antennas. To achieve these objectives we used two commercially available CEM softwares, XFDTD ® and CST Microwave Studio ®, to design a micro strip patch antenna for 900 MHz. We also gained experimental experience by characterizing the return loss of this patch antenna using the vector network analyzer. 1.2 Project Scope 1.2.1 Description We will study some basic types of antennas; extending basic knowledge of antenna to complex antenna designs such as micro strip patch antennas and also modeled them on antenna design and simulation software. This report has been divided into a number of chapters each discussing a different stage of the project. They are briefly described below: Chapter 2 describes the fundamentals of antennas and thoroughly discusses the theory of fundamental parameters and quantities of antenna. In this chapter the basic concept of an antenna is discussed and its working is explained. Some critical performance parameters of antennas are also discussed. Finally, some common types of antennas are also discussed for understanding purposes. Chapter 3 discusses the important characteristics of antennas as radiators of electromagnetic energy. These characteristics are normally considered in the far field as the antenna pattern or radiation pattern of an antenna is the three-dimensional plot of its radiation at far field. It also discusses the types of antenna patterns in detail. Some important mathematical equations are also solved in this chapter for the better understanding of how an antenna works. Chapter 4 discusses in detail the modeling of the half wave dipole and micro strip patch antenna using XFDTD ®. It describes the modeling of the antenna, the feeding, and the resultant plots obtained. Furthermore it concludes with comparison of the results obtained with the simulations already available in the software. Chapter 5 discusses the theory, calculations involved and the fabrication of the micro strip (patch) antenna in detail. The calculations for the dimensions of the rectangular patch in detail are in this chapter. Also, this chapter describes the results obtained through simulation of the model on the software CST Microwave Studio ®. Chapter 6 discusses conclusions drawn from the whole project. Chapter 2 Antenna Fundamentals In this chapter, the basic concept of an antenna is discussed and its working is explained. Next, some critical performance parameters of antennas are discussed. Finally, some common types of antennas are introduced. The treatment for these is taken from the reference [4], [6] and [9]. 2.1 Introduction Antenna is a metallic structure designed for radiating and receiving electromagnetic  energy. An antenna acts as a transitional structure between the guiding devices (e.g. waveguide,  transmission line) and the free space. The official IEEE definition of an antenna as given by  Stutzman and Thiele [9] is as follows:   â€Å"That part of a transmitting or receiving system that is designed to radiate or receive electromagnetic waves†. 2.2 How an Antenna radiates? In order to understand how an antenna radiates, we have to first know how radiation occurs. A  conducting wire radiates because of time-varying current or an acceleration or deceleration of charge. If there is no motion of charges in a wire, no radiation will occur, since no flow of current occurs. Radiation will not occur even if charges are moving with uniform or constant velocity along a straight wire. Also, charges moving with uniform velocity along a curved or bent wire will produce radiation. If charge is oscillating with time, then radiation will occur even along a straight wire as explained by Balanis [4]. The radiation pattern from an antenna can be further understood by considering a voltage source connected to a two-conductor transmission line. When a sinusoidal voltage source is applied across the transmission line, an electric field is generated which is sinusoidal in nature. The bunching of the electric lines of force can indicate the magnitude of this electric field. The free electrons on the conductors are forcefully displaced by the electric lines of force and the motion of these charges causes the flow of current, which leads to the creation of a magnetic field. Due to time varying electric and magnetic fields, electromagnetic waves are created which travel between the conductors. When these waves approach open space, connecting the open ends of the electric lines forms free space waves. As the sinusoidal source continuously creates electric disturbance, electromagnetic waves are generated continuously and these travel through the transmission line, the antenna and are radiated into the free space. 2.3 Near and Far Field Regions The field patterns of an antenna, change with distance and are associated with two types of energy radiating and reactive energy. Hence, the space surrounding an antenna can be divided into three regions. Figure 2.1: Field regions around an antenna The three regions that are depicted in above figure are described as: 2.3.1 Reactive Near-Field Region: In this region the reactive field dominates. The reactive energy oscillates towards and away from the antenna, thus appearing as reactance. In this region, energy is stored and no energy is dissipated. The outermost boundary for this region is at a distance ÃŽ » (2.1) where R1is the distance from antenna surface, D is the largest dimension of the antenna and ÃŽ » is the wavelength. 2.3.2 Radiating Near-Field Region: This region also called Fresnel region lies between the reactive near-field region and the far field region. In this region, the angular field distribution is a function of the distance from the antenna. reactive fields are smaller in this field as compared to the reactive near-field region and the radiation fields dominate. The outermost boundary for this region is at a distance (2.2) where R2is the distance from the antenna surface. 2.3.3 Far-Field Region: The region beyond is the far field region also called Fraunhofer region. The angular field distribution is not dependent on the distance from the antenna in this region. In this region, the reactive fields are absent and only the radiation fields exist and the power density varies as the inverse square of the radial distance in this region. 2.4 The Hertzian Dipole A hertzian dipole or infinitesimal dipole, which is a piece of straight wire whose length L and diameter are both very small, compared to one wavelength. A uniform current I is assumed to flow along its length. Although such a current element does not exist in real life, it serves as a building block from which the field of a practical antenna can be calculated (Sadiku [6]). Consider the hertzian dipole shown in figure. We assume that it is located at the origin of a coordinate system and that it carries a uniform current. i.e. I=IË ³ cosωt. The retarded magnetic vector potential at the field point, due to dipole is given by (2.3) Where [I] is the retarded current given by (2.4) Where ÃŽ ²=ω/u=2Ï€/ÃŽ », and u=1/ the current is said to be retarded at point under consideration because there is a propagation time delay r/u or phase delay. By substitution we may also write A in phasor form as t(2.5) Transforming this vector in Cartesian to spherical coordinates yields Where But (2.6) We find the E field using (2.7) (2.8) Where, A close observation of the field equations reveals that we have terms varying as The 1/ term is called the electrostatic field since it corresponds to the field of an electric dipole. This term dominates over other terms in a region very close to the hertzian dipole. The is called the inductive field, and it is predictable from the from the Biot Savart law. The term is important only at near field, that is, at distances close to the current element. The 1/r term is called the far field or radiation field because it is the only term that remains at the far zone, that is, at a point very far from the current element. Here, we are mainly concerned with the far field or radiation zone (ÃŽ ²r˃˃1), where the terms in can be neglected in favor of the 1/r term. Thus at far field, (2.9) The radiation terms of and are in time phase and orthogonal just as the fields of a uniform plane wave. The near and far zone fields are determined respectively to be the in equalities We define the boundary between the near and far zones by the value of r given by . where d is the largest dimension of the antenna. The time average power density is obtained as ) (2.10) Substitution yields time average radiated power as But And hence above equation becomes If free space is the medium of propagation, ÃŽ ·=120 and (2.11) This power is equivalent to the power dissipated in a fictitious resistance by current That is, (2.12) Where is the root mean square value of I. From above equations we obtain Or (2.13) The resistance is a characteristic property of the hertzian dipole antenna and is called its radiation resistance. We observe that it requires antennas with large radiation resistances to deliver large amounts of power to space. The above equation for is for a hertzian dipole in free space. 2.5 Half Wave Dipole Antenna The Half Wave dipole is named after the fact that its length is half of the wavelength i.e. . It is excited through a thin wire fed at the midpoint by a voltage source connected to the antenna via a transmission line. The radiated electromagnetic field due to a dipole can be obtained if we consider it as a chain of hertzian dipoles (Sadiku [6]). ÃŽ »/2 I z x y I Figure 2.3: Half Wave Dipole The magnetic Vector potential P due to length dl of the dipole carrying a phasor current is (2.14) We have assumed a sinusoidal current distribution because the current must vanish at the ends of the dipole. Also note that the actual current distribution on an antenna is not precisely known. It can be determined by using Maxwells equations subject to the boundary conditions on the antenna by a mathematically complex procedure. The sinusoidal current assumption approximates the distribution obtained by solving the boundary value problem and is commonly used. O Y X Z Figure 2.4. Magnetic field at point o If r >> à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã¢â‚¬Å", then Hence we can substitute in the denominator of the first equation where the magnitude of the distance is needed. In the numerator for the phase term, the difference between ÃŽ ² and ÃŽ ² is significant, so we will replace by . We maintain the cosine term in the exponent while neglecting it in the denominator because the exponent involves the phase constant while the denominator does not. So, (2.15) Using the following integrating equation, Applying this equation gives on (2.15) Since and the above equation becomes, Using identity = 2cos x, we obtain (2.16) We use in conjunction with the fact that to obtain electric and magnetic fields at far zone as (2.17) The radiation term of and are in time phase and orthogonal. We can obtain the time-average power density as (2.18) The time average radiated power can be determined as In the previous equations has been substituted assuming free space as the medium of propagation. The last equation can be written as Changing the variables, and using partial fractions reduces the above equation to Replacing with in the first integrand with in the second results in (2.19) Solving the previous equation of yields value of . The radiation resistance for the half wave dipole antenna is readily obtained from the following equation and comes out to be. (2.20) Chapter 3 Antenna Characteristics In the previous chapter we have discussed the basics of antennas and the elementary types of antennas. Now we will discuss the important characteristics of antennas as radiators of electromagnetic energy. These characteristics are normally considered in the far field and are as follows. And have been treated from the references [4], [6] and [9]. 3.1 Antenna Patterns The Antenna Pattern or Radiation Pattern of an antenna is the three-dimensional plot of its radiation at far field. There are two types of Radiation Patterns of antennas. The Field and the Power Pattern. 3.1.1 Field Pattern When the amplitude of the E-field is plotted, it is called the Field Pattern or the Voltage Pattern. A three dimensional plot of an antenna pattern is avoided by plotting separately the normalized versus for a constant which is called an E-Plane pattern or vertical pattern and the normalized versus for called the H-plane pattern or horizontal pattern. The normalization of is with respect to the maximum value of the so that the maximum value of the normalized is unity as explained by Sadiku [6]. For Example, for the hertzian Dipole, the normalized comes out to be, (3.1) Which is independent of From this equation we can obtain the E-plane pattern as the polar pattern of by varying from 0 to 180 degrees. This plot will be symmetric about the z-axis. For the H-plane pattern we set so that , which is a circle of radius 1. 3.1.2 Power Pattern When the square of the amplitude of E is plotted, it is called the power pattern. A plot of the time-average power, for a fixed distance r is the power pattern of the antenna. It is obtained by plotting separately versus for constant and versus for constant. The normalized power pattern for the hertzian dipole is obtained from the equation. (3.2) 3.2 Radiation Intensity The Radiation intensity of an antenna is defined as (3.3) Using the above equation, the total average power radiated can be expressed as (3.4) (3.5) Where dÃŽ ©= is the differential solid angle in steradian (sr). The radiation intensity is measured in watts per steradian (W/sr). The average value of is the total radiated power divided by ; that is, (3.6) 3.3 Directive Gain The directive gain of an antenna is a measure of the concentration of the radiated power in a particular direction It can also be regarded as the ability of the antenna to direct radiated power in a given direction. It is usually obtained as the ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction to the average radiation intensity, that is (3.7) may also be expressed in terms of directive gain as (3.8) The directive gain depends on antenna pattern. For the hertzian dipole as well as for the half wave dipole is maximum at and minimum at . Hence they radiate power in a direction broadside to their length. For an isotropic antenna, . However, such an antenna is not in reality but an ideality. The directivity D of an antenna is the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity to the average radiation intensity. D is also the maximum directive gain So, (3.9) Or, (3.10) For an isotropic antenna, D=1, which is the smallest value that D can have. For the hertzian dipole, as derived in equation (3.7) For half wave dipole, Where, ÃŽ ·=120 and (3.11) 3.4 Bandwidth (Impedance Bandwidth) By definition Bandwidth of an antenna is the difference between the highest and the lowest operational frequency of the antenna. Mathematically, (3.12) If this ratio is 10 to 1, then the antenna I classified as a broadband antenna. Another definition for Bandwidth is: Where, . 3.5 Gain We define that G is the actual gain in power over an ideal isotropic radiator when both are fed with same power. The reference for gain is the input power, not the radiated power. This efficiency is defined as the ratio of the radiated power () to the input power (). The input power is transformed into radiated power and surface wave power while a small portion is dissipated due to conductor and dielectric losses of the materials used. The power gain of the antenna as (3.13) The ratio of the power gain in any specified direction to the directive gain in that direction is referred to as the radiation efficiency of the antenna i.e. (3.14) Antenna gain can also be specified using the total efficiency instead of the radiation efficiency only. This total efficiency is a combination of the radiation efficiency and efficiency linked to the impedance matching of the antenna. Hence, from equation 3.14 (3.14(a)) 3.6 Polarization The definition for polarization can be quoted from Balanis [4] as: â€Å"Polarization of a radiated wave can be expressed as â€Å"that property of an electromagnetic wave describing the time-varying direction and relative magnitude of the electric field vector; specifically, the figure traced as a function of time by the extremity of the vector at a fixed location in space, and in the sense in which it is traced, as observed along the direction of propagation.† Polarization then is the curve traced by the end point of the arrow representing the instantaneous electric field. The field must be observed along the direction of propagation.† 3.7 Return Loss The Return Loss (RL) is the parameter which indicates the amount of power that is lost to or consumed by the load and is not reflected back as waves are reflected which leads to the formation of standing waves. This occurs when the transmitter and antenna impedance do not match. Hence, the RL is a parameter to indicate how well the matching between the transmitter and antenna has taken place. The RL is given as: (3.15) For perfect matching between the antenna and transmitter, RL = ∞ and Γ = 0 which means no power is being reflected back, whereas a Γ = 1 has a RL = 0 dB, which implies that all incident power is reflected. For practical applications a RL of -9.54 dB is acceptable. Chapter 4 Modeling of Half-Wave Dipole Micro Strip Patch Antenna Using XFDTD ® 4.1 Introduction For the purpose of modeling and simulation of antennas we have used modeling softwares, which are widely used in industries. These softwares are specially used for the purpose of electromagnetic (EM) modeling, which refers to the process of modeling the interaction of electromagnetic fields with physical objects and the environment. The first such software brought into use is XFDTD ®. It is a three-dimensional full wave electromagnetic solver based on the finite difference time domain method. It is fully three-dimensional.   Complex CAD ® objects can be imported into XFDTD ® and combining and editing can be done within XFDTD ® using the internal graphical editor. It is a powerful software which offers a lot of options to its users. This software has been initially used for modeling of basic antennas to get familiarity with interface and working of the software. Dipole is one of such basic antennas with a simple structure; as the name suggests dipole antenna consists of two wires on the same axis with a source applied at the center point. In this chapter, we begin with the analysis of a half-wave dipole antenna by derivation of field equations and the MATLAB ® plot. After the analysis the modeling is done using XFDTD ®. Finally, all the results are matched by plotting the data in MATLAB ®. 4.2 Derivation of Vector Magnetic Potential We begin with the derivation done in chapter 2 for of the radiated fields for a half-wave dipole antenna in equation 3.11 which gives us the following expression for (4.11) 4.2.1 MATLAB ® Plots of Half Wave Dipole Antenna The expression can be plotted in MATLAB ® using the following code clear all; theta = [0:360]*pi/180; F = cos((pi/2)*cos(theta))./(0.0000001 + sin(theta)); Pn = F./max(F); Pn=abs(Pn); title (POLAR PLOT OF HALF WAVE DIPOLE ) polar(0,1); hold on; polar (theta,Pn,r); The MATLAB ® generated plot of normalized electric field for half-wave dipole for above code is as follows Figure 4.1: MATLAB ® plot for Normalized Electric Field 4.3 Modeling of Half Wave Dipole Using XFDTD ® 4.3.1 Introduction XFDTD ® is a full wave, 3D, Electromagnetic Analysis Software. XFDTD ® used solid, dimension based modeling to create geometries. To create geometry, library objects and editing functions may be used. Modeling of half-wave dipole antenna was carried out in XFDTD ® to test the softwares capability of generating far field radiation pattern. And also to get in depth knowledge of XFDTD ® before using it for the modeling of patch antennas, which is the foremost objective of this project. 4.3.2 Validity of Model As in the previous section the electromagnetic theory of half-wave dipole was studied and its mathematical equations for normalized radiated field was derived and plotted. This plot will be our reference plot while doing the modeling of half-wave dipole. 4.3.3 Modeling of Half Wave Dipole As we know the length of a half-wave dipole antenna should be half the wavelength of the operating carrier wave frequency. Thus the dipole modeled in XFDTD ® has the following specifications: Length of 30cm Frequency used 1 GHz Thin wire was used to create the dipole Source was attached in the middle Figure below shows the geometry of dipole being modeled in XFDTD ®. Figure 4.2: XFDTD ® geometry of Half-Wave Dipole 4.3.4 Results The far fields of dipole antenna were calculated by XFDTD ® and plots were obtained for far field versus both Phi and Theta, as shown in Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4. The results matched with the theoretically established results. Figure 4.3: Far Field vs. Theta Figure 4.4: Far Field vs. Phi 4.3.5 Plotting XFDTD ® Results in MATLAB ® The data for far fields from XFDTD ® was exported and matched with the theoretical results in MATLAB ® for the purpose of confirming the results. Help was taken from the XFDTD ® reference manual to learn how to export far field data. The XFDTD ® file was copied and the extension was changed to ‘.dat and name was changed to ‘XFTDT.dat Next this file was read by MATLAB ® using the MATLAB ® code provided [angle1, a1, c1, d1, e1] = textread(XFDTD.dat,%f %f %f %f %f, 361); angle1=angle1*pi/180; q=find(c1 c1(q)=-9; c1=c1+9; m=max(c1); c1=c1./m; polar(angle1,c1,g) The MATLAB ® result is shown n figure below. Figure 4.8: XFDTD ® radiation pattern in MATLAB ® The experimentally produced curve qualitatively matches with our theoretical calculations. The shape of the curve is similar to the theoretical description, whereas the scale is different. For the purpose of confirming this result, the data of this curve is also exported into MATLAB ® to be compared with previously simulated results. 4.4 Modeling of Micro Strip Patch Antenna Using XFDTD ® 4.4.1 Introduction After gaining confidence on the design of dipole antenna by comparing its results with the simulations and the results obtained from MATLAB ®, we use the same computational software for the modeling of micro strip patch antenna. 4.4.2 Validity of Model For the modeling of micro strip patch antenna, a paper of IEEE â€Å"Application of Three-Dimensional Finite-Difference Time Domain Method of the Analysis of Planar Micro strip Circuits† is reproduced. This paper is used as a reference so that the results could be compared in order to check the validity. The result of our exercise confirms the results of the IEEE paper; this takes us to design a micro strip antenna of our desired parameters. This training will help us gain the expertise over the computational software, which can be used for the modeling of multiple different antennas. 4.4.3 Modeling of Micro Strip Patch Antenna The antenna is designed for the frequency range from 0 GHz (dc) to 20 GHz. The dimensions used for the antenna centers it at 7.8 GHz. Although its results at the higher frequencies are also examined for the accuracy, the parameters for the antenna are given below: Duroid substrate is used with =2.2 Thickness is 1/32 inch=0.794mm Length = 12.45mm Width = 16mm Transmission line feed is used and is placed at 2.09mm away from the left corner. With these specifications the center frequency comes out to be 7.8 GHz and this can be verified from the link www.emtalk.com/mpaclac.php Figure 4.5 shows the geometry of micro strip patch modeled in XFDTD ®. Figure 4.5 Geometry of the micro strip patch antenna 4.4.4 Results The S11 plot of micro strip patch antenna was calculated by XFDTD ®, as shown in Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7 is the plot of the IEEE paper. This gives us the comparison between the two. Figure 4.6 obtained from the XFDTD ® Figure 4.7: Results of S11 parameters from published IEEE Papers Chapter 5 Micro Strip Antennas 5.1 Introduction These days there are many commercial applications, such as mobile radio and wireless communication, where size, weight, cost, performance, ease of installation, and aerodynamic profiles are constraints and low profile antennas may be required. To meet these requirements micro strip antennas can be used. These are low profile antennas and are conformable to planar and non-planar surfaces. These are simple and inexpensive to manufacture using modern printed circuit technology. They are also mechanically robust and can be mounted on rigid surfaces. In addition, micro strip antennas are very versatile in terms of resonant frequency, polarization, pattern and impedance as explained by Balanis [4]. 5.1.1 Basic Characteristics Micro strip antennas consist of a very thin metallic strip or patch placed a small fraction of a wavelength above a ground plane. The micro strip patch is designed so its pattern maximum is normal to the patch hence making it a broadside radiator. This is accomplished by properly choosing the mode or field configuration of excitation beneath the patch. End-fire radiation can also be accomplished by judicious mode selection. For a rectangular patch, the length L of the element is usually . The conducting micro strip or patch and the ground plane are separated by the substrate (Balanis [4]). There are numerous substrates that can be used for the design of micro strip antennas and their dielectric constants are usually in the range of . The substrate that we are using in our designs has a value of 4.6. Often micro strip antennas are also referred to as patch antennas. The radiating elements and the feed lines are usually photo etched on the dielectric substrate. The radiating patch may be square, rectangular, thin strip, circular, elliptical, triangular or any other configuration. Arrays of micro strip elements with single or multiple feeds are used to achieve greater directivities. 5.1.2 Feeding Methods There are numerous methods that can be used to feed micro strip antennas. The four most common and popular are the micro strip line, coaxial probe, aperture coupling and proximity coupling. In our designs we have selected coaxial probe as our method of feeding the Micro strip antenna. Following is a brief explanation of coaxial feeding as explained by Balanis [4]. Coaxial-line feeds, where the inner conductor of the coax is attached to the radiation patch while the outer conductor is connected to the ground plane are widely used. The coaxial probe feed is also easy to fabricate and match, and it has low spurious radiation. However is has narrow bandwidth and it is more difficult to model. 5.2 Rectangular Patch The rectangular patch is one of the most widely used configurations of Micro strip antennas. It is very easy to analyze using either the transmission line model or the cavity model, which have higher accuracy for thin substrates as explained by Balanis [4]. In our desig

Child Labor in Pakistan Essay

Child Labor in Pakistan Essay Child labor refers to the employment of children at regular and sustained labor. It is the full-time employment of children under a minimum legal age. The practice of child labor is considered illegal by many countries and exploitative by many international organizations. (Child Labor at Distrcit Level, 2009)Child labor is one of the problems that occur as a result of the responses to the economic problems faced by vulnerable children. In most developed and emerging countries, use of children as labors is considered as violation of human rights and is outlawed, while some poorer and developing countries do tolerate and allow child labor. In Pakistan, a country where almost half of the population lives below the poverty line, child labor is deeply entrenched and pressing phenomenon. Child labor in Pakistan is prevalent in all sectors of the economy, thought it primarily exists in the informal sector of employment and home-based industry. Pakistans high population growth of around 1.6% poses multiple challenges and threatens to constrain limited resources and social and economic development of the country. According to the survey of Federal Bureau of Statistics (FBS) in 2002, the number of working children in Pakistan was approximately 3.5 million or 7% of the total workforce in Pakistan. However, the children under the age of 10 and those working in small and family businesses that are not registered with the government were not the part of the survey. So the actual figure is deemed to be much higher than the official figures. In Pakistan, children aged 5-14 are around 40 million. The survey conducted by UNISEF in 2003, estimated that 8 million children under the age of 14 are engaged as labors. Most of them are engaged as labors in brick kiln factories, carpet weaving centers, agriculture, small industries and domestic services. The survey also indicated that rural and urban ratio of child labors was 7:1. The province with most number of cases of child labor was Punjab with nearly 60% of the total child labor population. HISTORY AND IMPACT OF CHILD LABOR IN PAKISTAN Child labor has been prevalent in Pakistan in all the sectors of the economy, though it mostly exists in informal sector of employment and in the home based industry. In late nineties, the matter of child labor emerged as a serious consideration due to international exposure. In 1996, Pakistans Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto acknowledged the problem of child labor in the country and announced the plan to eliminate it. In his speech in April 1998, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif stated that the problem of child labor occupied a prominent place in the agenda of government of Pakistan. In 1999, Federal minister for labor and manpower, Shaikh Rashid announced a four point policy for curbing child labor in Pakistan. In Jan-99, government announced the draft of the labor policy. The policy envisaged that the government is committed to end child labor. It was also promised by the government of Pakistan in 2000, that the law to eliminate child labor and bonded labor at an economic level would be implemented in 2002 and till 2005; there would be no bonded labor or child labor in Pakistan. Even after so much regulations and promises by the government of Pakistan, the attempt has not been successful till now. Though the issue has received international attention and various organizations at international level like ILO and UNICEF are participating in the issue, still the improvement in this case is very slow. In eradicating and creating awareness against child labor in Pakistan many communities are having a stake. Some of these communities/autonomous bodies working for the cause are: Government of Pakistan Children Parliament Pakistan International Labor Organization UNICEF Other NGOs, Society and Media All the above government and private bodies are actively working for the eradication of child labor in Pakistan. The issue has been seriously addressed by the above bodies either individually or in conjunction with any other body. The role of each of the above mentioned body in the eradication of child labor in Pakistan is as follows: GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN: Government of Pakistan has been actively working for the eradication of child labor in Pakistan. Activities of government towards the issue have been gaining considerable attention since late 1990s, when the matter of child labor emerged as a serious consideration due to international exposure. In Jan-99, government announced the draft of the labor policy. The policy envisaged that the government is committed to end child labor. It was also promised by the government of Pakistan in 2000, that the law to eliminate child labor and bonded labor at an economic level would be implemented in 2002 and till 2005; there would be no bonded labor or child labor in Pakistan. Though the government has not been able to deliver on the promises made due to the increased political weaknesses in the company, still there have been continuous efforts made on their part. Government also identified poverty and lack of education for children as root causes for the child labor in the country. (Arshad)The present government in Pakistan has made elementary education compulsory for children. Along with that, the government has also made the policy of distributing free books in primary schools. This would help the parents, who cannot afford their childs education and school expenses can send their children to schools. Along with all of the above, the following laws are made by government of Pakistan to address the issue (Pakistan): National Child Labor Laws: In Pakistan a child is defined as a person younger then fifteen. The legal minimum age for employment of children is 14 for normal businesses and 15 for railways and mines. The constitution of Islamic republic of Pakistan prohibits forced labor, slavery, and employment of children below the age of 14. The government of Pakistan asserts that the labor inspectors are empowered to carry out regular visits to all employment places covered under employment of children act 1991 to check the compliance of the law at that places. Education Laws: Articles 37 (b) (c) of the constitution of Pakistan declares public policy to remove illiteracy and provide free and compulsory secondary education within the minimum possible period [and to] make technical and professional education generally available and higher education equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. Despite a law in 1962 requiring each province to designate areas where primary education is compulsory, none of the provinces have complied. As of now, the present government in Pakistan has made elementary education compulsory for children. Along with that, the government has also made the policy of distributing free books in primary schools. International Conventions: Pakistan is a party to ILO convention concerning minimum age of employment in the industry and UN convention for rights of the child. Through above legislatures and laws, and to some other timely regulations, the government of Pakistan is acting as an active community stakeholder in eradication of child labor in the country. Though in present scenario Pakistan is suffering through political weaknesses, but still government is committed to take the work one step ahead. CHILDREN PARLIAMENT OF PAKISTAN: The childrens parliament for Pakistan was launched on 14-Nov-08, by Society for the Protection of the Rights of Child (SPARC). The main aim of this parliament is to create awareness and promote child rights in the country. The members were elected from different schools of Peshawar, Islamabad, Faisalabad, Karachi, Lahore etc. Besides providing basic rights to every child in Pakistan other objectives of this parliament are: End child labor Educate every child Provide medical facilities to children Protect the children In addition, children parliament serves as their voice to convey the difficulties and problems faced by the children to government of Pakistan. INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION: With the matter of child labor in Pakistan gaining international attention, ILO has fastened its steps to address the issues. ILO does timely surveys within various industries in Pakistan suspecting large amount of child labor. (International Programme for elimination of child labor)Based on the survey they come out with survey reports addressing the issue and recommending ways to deal with the situations. Some of the latest surveys conducted by ILO in Pakistan are: Survey on Child Labor in Kasur Tanneries in 2004 Survey on Child Labor in Glass Bangles industry in Hyderabad-2004 Survey on child labor in surgical instruments manufacturing industry in Sialkot Survey on child labor in coal mine industries in Chakwal, Noshera and Shangla ILO has also been working with the government of Pakistan guiding them from time to time on this issue. It is also acting as a watch dog, inspecting the ways in which government is addressing the issue. UNICEF: The name UNICEF needs no introduction. United Nation International Childrens Emergency Fund, a UN organization has consistently working towards the development of children in underdeveloped countries. UNICEF conducts timely surveys to see the improvement in the case. The survey conducted by UNISEF in 2003, estimated that 8 million children under the age of 14 are engaged as labors. Most of them are engaged as labors in brick kiln factories, carpet weaving centers, agriculture, small industries and domestic services. The survey also indicated that rural and urban ratio of child labors was 7:1. The province with most number of cases of child labor was Punjab with nearly 60% of the total child labor population. UNICEF also set-up centers in the Pakistan, helping destitute children get home. Pakistan is also amongst the countries that get funding from UNICEF to promote the steps in eradication of child labor. OTHER NGOS SOCIETY AND MEDIA: This is another group of very important stakeholders in the issue of child labor in Pakistan. NGOs like ACM Apostolic Charismatic Ministry and Child Reach International has continuously worked towards the development of children in Pakistan to eradicate child labor. Though the NGOs in Pakistan dont get proper funding from government of Pakistan neither from any corporate bodies, still the work they do in crating awareness and providing elementary education to children is quite appreciable. Society and media as a whole has a major role to play in the eradication of child labor in Pakistan. These two stakeholders are still dormant in the issue, but for the development of children in Pakistan society and media have to play a major part. Poverty levels in Pakistan appear to necessitate that children work in order to allow the families to reach their target take-home pay. The lack of economic opportunity for adult employment in Pakistan needs to be studied and taken under consideration; the government also needs strict to inspect the strict implementation of laws made by it. Lack of education is another reason for the high rate of child labor in Pakistan. Thought government of Pakistan has made policies for providing free elementary education to children, the policies need strict implementation to address the issue. Also, other stakeholders of the issue specially Children parliament, ILO, UNICEF, Media and NGOs have to work in tandem to create awareness for the rights of the children in the country. REFERENCES (n.d.). Retrieved Aug 1, 2010, from www. unicef. org: www. unicef. org/ protection/ index_3717. html Ahmad, M. (2001). Child Labor: A time to reflect. In M. Ahmad, Child Labor: A time to reflect. UNICEF. Arshad, R. (n.d.). Child labor in Pakistan. Retrieved Aug 1, 2010, from http://www.hamariweb.com: http://www.hamariweb.com/articles/article.aspx?id=91 Child Labor at Distrcit Level. (2009, Sep). Retrieved August 1, 2010, from http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de: http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/17333/1/MPRA_paper_17333.pdf H.Zaidi, H. (2004, Jan). Baseline survey report on child labor. Retrieved Aug 1, 2010, from http://www.ilo.org: http://www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/viewProduct.do?productId=5225 International Programme for elimination of child labor. (n.d.). Retrieved Aug 1, 2010, from http://www.ilo.org: http://www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/searchProduct.do;?type=normaltitle=selectedMonthFrom=-1productYearFrom=selectedMonthTo=-1selectedCountries=342selectedMediaTypes=14keywords=userType=3selectedFieldOfficeId=-1resultPerPage=20selectedSortById=4 Pakistan. (n.d.). Retrieved Aug 1, 2010, from http://www.dol.gov: http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/sweat/pakistan.htm Population census organization. (n.d.). Retrieved Aug 1, 2010, from http://www.statpak.gov.pk: http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/pco/statistics/pop_sex_ratio_growth_rate/pop_sex_ratio_growth_rate.html COMMUNITY PROGRAM TO ADDRESS CHILD LABOR IN PAKISTAN ABSTRACT Child labor refers to the employment of children at regular and sustained labor. It is the full-time employment of children under a minimum legal age. The practice of child labor is considered illegal by many countries and exploitative by many international organizations. (Child Labor at Distrcit Level, 2009)Child labor is one of the problems that occur as a result of the responses to the economic problems faced by vulnerable children. In most developed and emerging countries, use of children as labors is considered as violation of human rights and is outlawed, while some poorer and developing countries do tolerate and allow child labor. In Pakistan, a country where almost half of the population lives below the poverty line, child labor is deeply entrenched and pressing phenomenon. Child labor in Pakistan is prevalent in all sectors of the economy, thought it primarily exists in the informal sector of employment and home-based industry. Pakistans high population growth of around 1.6% poses multiple challenges and threatens to constrain limited resources and social and economic development of the country. The paper designs a community program to address the issue of child labor in Pakistan. It identifies various stakeholders in the issue and based on certain strategies and programs, intends to bring an effective social change. The paper also addresses potential challenges in the way of eradicating the child labor in Pakistan and ways for addressing the issue. GOAL OF THE STUDY: The primary goal of the study is identifying the trends in the issue if child labor in Pakistan. Based on the issue, paper intends to identify various stakeholders of the issue. The aim of studying this is to a community program to address the issue of child labor in Pakistan. It identifies various stakeholders in the issue and based on certain strategies and programs, intends to bring an effective social change. The paper also addresses potential challenges in the way of eradicating the child labor in Pakistan and ways for addressing the issue. The goals had been made keeping in mind the resources available in Pakistan to bring a social change. Political weakness in the economy of Pakistan has also been kept in mind. The success of this community program depends upon the working in conjunction of the stakeholders of the issue. STRATEGIES TO BE ADOPTED In order to eradicate child labor in Pakistan both preventive and corrective strategies are proposed. Successful intervention models are also founded so that the change in knowledge would be easier to bring about, attitude change requires relatively longer time frame and finally the change in total mind set and behavioral change requires the longest time. Interventions are to be phased out in the time bound manner and change strategies are age specific and gender equitable. GENERAL AND POSITIVE ACTION STRATEGIES: The following general and positive action strategies are requires to be taken to address the issue of child labor in Pakistan: Change in attitude of stakeholders: Awareness campaigns, counseling sessions and advocacy workshops need to be geared towards parents for gaining their confidence and for raising their awareness about the ill-effects of child labor concerning their children. The campaigns and counseling would highlight the alternatives of child labor, including non-formal and formal education and apprenticeship. Parents would be educated about the benefits of schooling in terms of income and increased efficiency and guiding that child labor in many cases is futile with a very meager income associated with it. Similar services for gaining employers confidence would be arranged for building support for struggle in eliminating child labor. Carefully designed educational and informative conferences and/or seminars would be arranged to restore the self esteem and dignity of labor. Labor Department working with industry should work with missionary zeal in order to accomplish an eventual elimination of labor in a reasonable time frame. Poverty Alleviation: Numerous steps would be aimed at familys alternative income generation and poverty. Poverty alleviation would be addressed very seriously at different levels with the involvement of international organizations, various non-government agencies and Provincial, federal and district governments. The problem of child labor in Pakistan can be managed effectively only if the problem of poverty is worked out effectively, through income generation projects for society and parents and through equitable and fair access to safety nets such as zakat funds and other benevolent programs. Poverty alleviation efforts of provincial and state governments PRSP (Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper) would coincide well with time-bound program endeavors targeted at phasing out child labor from the country. (Beig, 2004)The survey carried out by ILO in 2004 in coal mine industries in Chakwal, Noshera and Shangla revealed following figures: Chakwal: Category Sample Plan Actual Interview conducted Working Children 450 126 Parents 12 16 Employers 60 27 Total 522 169 Chirat/ Noshera: Category Sample Plan Actual Interview conducted Working Children 400 48 Parents 5 4 Employers 10 13 Total 415 65 Drop-out Survey: Category Sample Plan Actual Interview conducted School-going 150 250 Drop-outs 15 27 Parents 27 22 Teachers 40 38 Total 212 337 Formal Schooling, Non-Formal Schooling and Vocational Training: (Kulsoom, 2009)Poverty being major reason for majority drop-outs, provision of fee and subsidized education would be recommended at formal schools. Formal school teachers need to be trained to adopt child friendly teaching methodologies and attitude in order to reduce risk of drop-outs. Apart from the traditional program of study, training at non-formal educational schools should include vocational training health and safety education. NFE schools would be a really essential measure because to stop the supply of labor at source, alternative sources of productive engagement needs to be available with children. Quality of education will also be enhanced and it needs to be attractive and relevant to help reduce the drop-out tendency in schools. Issues concerning child labor, including information about the hazardous nature of child labor and gender biases needs to be incorporated into the educational curriculum of non-formal and formal schools for both male and female students. Occupational health hazards and safety measures: Till the child labor is eliminated totally, the culture of occupational safety would be promoted in all industries by raising awareness through advocacy seminars. These awareness-related advocacy seminars should be arranged at the worksites and at community level, would also be used for educating children about the ill effects of child labor and raising awareness about the value of education and its other positive alternatives. The Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) study undertaken by ILO in 2004 also yielded detailed insights on the same issue. In addition to seminars, group meetings and workshops would also be arranged on a sustainable basis for promoting norms and adopting preventive health measures. Improved Legislative Measures: Steps would be taken for enforcement of existing labor laws. Till the child labor is completely eliminated, increased protection to child workers would be provided upon the consent of the government against the violation of their rights and against unsafe industrial practices including child labor. High powered mystery clients would be requested to monitor adherence in safety standards along with labor departments and ILO monitors. PARTNERSHIPS AND CAPACITY BUILDING: ILO would be requested to build strategic alliances with Non Governmental Organization in Pakistan. ILO also need to consider alliances with consultation agencies working on child labor issues to use them as catalyst-facilitators, monitors and trainers in working towards the common goal of eradicating child labor and reducing its ill-effects. To rectify the problem of child labor, cross agency partnerships in Pakistan would be prompted till the operations are self sustained and fully streamlined. These partnerships would be supported by ILO and jointly partnered with government agencies in Pakistan and with relevant international agencies such as UNICEF, UN department for Assistance Framework (UNDAF) and other stakeholders like NGOs, Media etc. cost effective innovative transformations would be geared towards effective building of District level labor departments, Provincial planning, district governments and NGOs. The aim of training would be to i nculcate learning about a proactive work culture along with a missionary zeal in addressing the issue of child labor in Pakistan. MEDIA SUPPORT: Various media like T.V, Press, and Internet media would be involved in the broad-based awareness regarding the child labor issues, including vocational and formal education. Effective information, education and communication materials would be created and would be disseminated to press and other media in order to win their support and create awareness. Electronic media would be used later as an effective partner in the struggle against the child labor in Pakistan. Strategies will also be made to gain the confidence of electronic media through workshops, conferences and meetings. All the above strategies used for community engagement are based on the following model. Different Stakeholders that are involved in this program of community engagement are: Government of Pakistan International Labor Organization (ILO) United Nation International Children Emergency Fund (UNICEF) Society, especially parents of the children UN Department for Assistance Framework (UNDAF) Non Government Organizations (NGOs) Schools and their staffs, especially teachers Employers Labor Union Media in all forms Children Themselves POTENTIAL CHALLENGES AND THE ROAD AHEAD Potential challenges in the way of making community engagement for eradicating child labor in Pakistan are: Weak Political and Economic Scenario in Pakistan: Pakistan is going through a period of weak political and economic scenario. So that will be the major potential challenge in making the community engagement because in an unstable economy implementing legislatures is a very difficult task. Also, making arrangements for funds in a weak political scenario becomes difficult because in this case government may not be ready to fund the program. For overcoming this challenge, fund needs to be raised from major corporate. They should be encouraged to fund the program as much as possible as the part of their corporate social responsibility. For implementing the legislatures, proper alliance needs to be made between Government bodies and foreign bodies like ILO and UNICEF who are already working for the cause. These bodies will help monitoring laws and legislatures formed. Poverty: Poverty is another major challenge in the effectiveness of community engagement in Pakistan. Most families send their children to work to reach their target take-away home pay. So making them understand about not considering the pay of their children as the major factor would be really difficult. To overcome this challenge, workshops would be held and proper counseling would be provided to parents about the harmful effects of child labor and benefits of elementary education for the future of their children. Attitudes of Employers, Parents and Children: This is another challenge in the effectiveness of the community program. In various industries children are considered as cheap labors. So changing the attitude of the employers about employing children by considering them as cheap labor would be difficult to change. Every business needs to be inspected at intervals along with counseling and advocacy meetings with employers to change the attitude of the employees. Same would be the problem with Parents and children. This would be addressed by showing the ill-effects of child labor and benefits of education. Though poverty levels in Pakistan appear to be a necessitate reason that children work in order to allow the families to reach their target take-home pay, effective community engagement can help raise awareness against the issue. The lack of economic opportunity for adult employment in Pakistan needs to be studied and taken under consideration; the government also needs strict to inspect the strict implementation of laws made by it. Lack of education is another reason for the high rate of child labor in Pakistan. Thought government of Pakistan has made policies for providing free elementary education to children, the policies need strict implementation to address the issue. Also, other stakeholders of the issue specially Children parliament, ILO, UNICEF, Media and NGOs have to work in tandem to create awareness for the rights of the children in the country.